CHAPTER 5
Forming the Crisis Management Team and Writing the Plan
Opening Case: Roof Party at Local College Goes Terribly Wrong
Years ago an odd and obscure event occurred at Concord College, a small public institution nestled on top of a mountain in southern West Virginia. Four students somehow gained access to the roof of the student union building and proceeded to have a small party of their own. With lawn chairs, a bit of music, and of course, some alcohol, the little get-together seemed harmless and uneventful until two of the students got a little too close to the edge of the roof, and fell. Although the ground was only 12 feet below, both students were knocked unconscious and lay motionless, just underneath a window to the faculty dining room.
Almost immediately, emergency providers were on the scene tending to the injured students. Meanwhile, another student who was passing by noticed the commotion and became very distraught, as she knew one of the victims. This student was in her third trimester of pregnancy and suddenly began to have contractions. With the emotional excitement of the events, and her impending delivery of her own baby, it appeared she had gone into labor. Now, three students—not two—were receiving attention from emergency providers. Because of the commotion, traffic began to move slowly on the road in front of the student union. Campus police moved to the area and redirected traffic.
The college’s crisis management team arrived on the scene and was looking into matters as well. After confirming the identities of the students involved, they began to monitor the activities of the emergency providers. The situation was highly unusual. To make matters even more perplexing, one of the two remaining students who had been on the roof of the student union had disappeared. Emergency providers and the police were told of this missing student, but he could not be found. It turned out that he had become distraught and was sitting by himself at the stairs of the administration building, some 300 feet away. The head of the crisis management team—not the police—eventually found this student.
But there was more to come. Approximately one hour after the students had fallen off the roof, the two student victims, the pregnant student, and the distraught student suddenly appeared perfectly functional again. The police and firefighters left the scene and the crisis management team calmly went back to their normal duties. Concord College had just completed its annual mock disaster training exercise.
Opening Case Discussion Questions
Could this crisis have been averted if the university had an effective security management system?
What is your reaction to the crisis management team’s response?
What improvements could you suggest for future incidents like this one?
What crisis management insights can we gather from this incident?
Introduction
The crisis management team (CMT) and the crisis management plan (CMP) are the core of an organization’s crisis planning efforts. The team meets together first and then develops the plan. Later, the plan can be tested through mock disaster drills such as the one discussed in the opening case. This chapter explores all three of these processes in detail. We begin with the mechanics involved in forming the crisis management team. Next, the crisis management plan is outlined. We close the chapter by examining the components of crisis management training, including guidelines on how to conduct a mock disaster.
Forming the Crisis Management Team
Before any crisis planning can occur, the crisis management team must be formally organized. While discussion about crises can take place at any time without a team, the CMT is the most effective and appropriate starting point for serious crisis planning.
Goals of the CMT
The basic mission of the CMT is to plan for potential crises and manage the ones that eventually occur. Encompassing this mission involved five specific goals. These are overviewed in Figure 5.1.
The CMT identifies the crisis threats the organization is facing. Every organization faces threats that are unique to its industry and in some cases, to its geographical location. The CMT considers these factors as it evaluates the specific risks that are likely candidates for a crisis. In planning for a crisis, the team cannot formulate a response for every potential crisis, so it must be flexible (Clark & Harman, 2004). Most threats cluster into crisis families (Coombs & Holladay, 2001; Pearson & Mitroff 1993). This understanding can simplify the threat assessment phase because managers can plan responses to potential families (categories) of crises rather than to each individual crisis that might erupt.
The CMT develops the crisis management plan. The CMT develops a crisis management plan that addresses the potential crisis threats identified in the first step. The plan also contains key contact information of vendors and other important stakeholders. In many cases, the plan is posted on the organization’s website.
Figure 5.1 Goals of the Crisis Management Team (CMT)
The CMT leads training in the area of crisis management. The CMT oversees the crisis training efforts in the organization. Two levels of training are made available, one for the CMT, and one for the organization members at large. Team training should occur at regular scheduled intervals. The content of training usually revolves around reviewing the crisis management plan and conducting simulated drills (Coombs, 2007). Simulated drills are necessary because the team really does not know how well it can function in a crisis unless the plan is tested periodically (Clark & Harman, 2004). Training activities need to be coordinated between the internal and external landscapes. For example, it is necessary when setting up a mock disaster drill to contact stakeholders in the external landscape, such as fire departments and emergency medical service (EMS) organizations.
The CMT actively manages a crisis when one occurs. When a crisis does occur, the CMT is activated and placed in charge of managing the event. This phase of the team’s experience is most crucial because it reveals performance levels in two areas: (1) How well was the crisis handled, and (2) how well did members of the team work together? The evaluation of these two areas is addressed in the fifth goal, mentioned next.
The CMT leads the postcrisis evaluation so that learning can occur. After the crisis, a postevaluation session is recommended to determine how well the crisis was managed. Specifically, the CMT seeks to find answers to the following questions:
What did we learn from this crisis that will help us prevent a similar one in the future?
If the same crisis did occur again, what could we do differently to mitigate its impact?
What aspects of the crisis response were performed well?
What aspects of the crisis response need improvement?
Scheduling the evaluation sessions is the most important factor in the postcrisis evaluation phase. Such sessions must be held soon after the event while the details of the crisis are still familiar to everyone. Waiting too long can lead to forgetfulness (Kovoor-Misra & Nathan, 2000). This forgetfulness can lead to the loss of valuable insights on how to make crisis management function better in the future.
Team Member Characteristics
The CMT has been referred to as the “nerve center of the crisis management process” (Gilpin & Murphy, 2008, p. 134). As a result, CMT members must have a specific and complementary set of individual characteristics that allow them to work well in a group setting. To accomplish this difficult task, a team is necessary, one whose composition is diverse and includes members from different parts of the organization (Barton, 2001). The characteristics of an ideal CMT member are discussed next.
Ability to Work in a Team Environment
CMT members must like people and enjoy working in a group. This is not an assignment for an employee who prefers to work on projects independently. Above all, CMT members must realize they are part of a team working toward shared goals (Coombs, 2007).
Ability to Think Under Pressure
CMT members should be able to think under pressure (Clark & Harman, 2004). Employees react to stress in different ways, and some do not manage it effectively. For CMT members, however, stress should be a motivator, a sort of adrenaline shot that makes them want to manage a crisis environment (Chandler, 2001).
Ambiguity Tolerance
We always prefer to make decisions when all needed information is readily available. However, in a crisis situation, decisions are typically made in conditions of uncertainty. Ambiguity tolerance enables a decision maker to be effective, even when desired information is not available (Chandler, 2001).
Good Listening Skills
Team members need to be able to listen effectively to the stakeholders and victims presenting their sides of the crisis story. Listening for what is said is important, but being intuitive and listening for the untold story is equally critical.
Verbal Skills
Good speaking skills are a must. Some of the team members may be assigned to talk to members of the media, an assignment that requires excellent verbal skills. Among team members, communication intentions should also be clear. This ability goes back to stress tolerance, because some team members may not communicate as effectively when they are under stress.
Critical Thinking Skills
This characteristic includes the ability to analyze problems and evaluate alternatives by examining the pros and cons of each option (Coombs, 2007; Gilpin & Murphy, 2008). Understanding the accumulation of details to an event and how they lead to a crisis is essential (Roux-Dufort, 2009). Critical thinking is a savvy skill that implies one does not believe everything he or she hears. Instead, combined with the skill of good listening, one is able to understand the hidden messages that many people convey in their verbal and written communications.
Team Composition
Team members should represent the major functional areas (e.g., marketing, production, finance, etc.) of the organization (Coombs, 2007). Representatives from the following areas are recommended:
Company Chief Executive Officer or President
The chief executive officer (CEO) or president should always have an active interest in the CMT, although the size of the organization will dictate the capacity in which the top executive should serve. In smaller organizations, this person would be on the CMT. In larger organizations, a vice president for administration or operations may serve as the representative of upper management (Barton, 2001). Podolak (2002) advocates that this person should also serve as the team leader; however, not all crisis management experts agree on this. The CEO does not always serve as the company spokesperson during a crisis, although that is certainly an option. This role is often held by a member of the public relations department or the designee who typically communicates with the media. The CEO might not need to address the media if a better-trained staff person is available. “Only in the most egregious of crises—when lives are lost, when the story remains on the front pages for days—does the media and the public even expect to see the CEO” (Pines, 2000, p. 15).
Human Resources
It is always advisable to have a representative from human resources (HR) serving on the CMT. First, HR serves as the liaison with employees. Individual employees can be affected by a crisis in a number of ways, and HR is there to ensure their interests are represented in the crisis management process (Lockwood, 2005). Second, HR has knowledge areas that can be useful during a crisis. These areas include next-of-kin details, number of employees in each site of the facility, and language and cultural barrier knowledge that is especially important if the company operates globally (Millar, 2003). HR should also have a network of trauma counselors on contract in the event of a major crisis involving injuries and/or a loss of life.
Accounting and Finance
A crisis can have affect on cash flow, stock valuation, and cash disbursement, so a representative from finance is appropriate. There may also be a need to secure funds quickly for relief operations. This accountability becomes particularly critical if funds are to be disbursed abroad.
Security
The head of the organization’s security or police force should be a member of the CMT. Many crises will involve the services of this department, such as in the case of a workplace violence incident. This department also serves as a liaison with law enforcement departments outside the company whose help may be needed.
Public Relations
This functional area goes by different names in different organizations, such as public information, public affairs, or community outreach. During the crisis, this department relays the information and viewpoints of the organization to its public stakeholders. Hence, the official company spokesperson to the media usually resides in this department. The public relations department also works to help predict public perception of the organization and issues related to the specific crisis at hand. Usually, these departments have established ties with various media outlets so that a crisis event is not the first time the spokesperson and the media will have had contact.
Legal Counsel
An attorney should be a member of the CMT to provide legal expertise, particularly when deciding how much information should be disclosed to outside stakeholders during a crisis. With this in mind, the legal counsel and public relations director must work together and be in agreement about how much disclosure is appropriate.
Operations
The core operations of the organization should be represented on the team. In a manufacturing facility, the plant manager would be the logical choice. At a major university, several core areas require representation, including food service, housing, registrar and records, the director of plant and facilities, and the academic departments.
Outside Consultant
Some organizations may opt to employ an outside consultant during the initial start-up of the CMT and the subsequent plan. The rationale is that a learning curve exists for those organizations new at crisis planning, and a consultant can help ease the learning process. In other cases, a consultant may be brought in to offer advice concerning certain types of crises. For example, in cases involving workplace violence, a psychologist with appropriate experience can advise the CMT on both mitigation and prevention of such a crisis (Simola, 2005).
Virtual Crisis Management Teams
Virtual teams are now quite common in organizations, especially among multinational corporations (MNCs). A 2010 survey of MNCs found that 80 percent of the respondents were members of a virtual team (Sadri & Condia, 2012). Virtual teams face a number of challenges that need to be addressed. Table 5.1 provides an overview of these challenges.
Table 5.1 Understanding the Challenges of Virtual Teams
Source: Adapted from Nunamaker et al. (2009), 114.
Given the growth of virtual teams and the expansion of the boundaries of organizations in general, CMTs must also be prepared to operate in a virtual manner. One of the first challenges that must be addressed is the location of the command center. Will it be at company headquarters or close to the origins of the crisis? A backup command center should also be designated in case the main command center becomes inoperative. This situation occurred during the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack when the New York City Office of Emergency Management lost its state-of-the art center. After the first tower caught fire and collapsed, the emergency operations center was unusable because of its location across the street from the tower (Davis, 2002).
Trust can enhance the effectiveness of virtual teams (Kimble, 2011). Trust building must occur before a major crisis develops. Hence, virtual teams of any type should engage in regularly scheduled activities that help team members work together and establish their expected roles (Nunamaker, Reinig, & Briggs, 2009; Sadri & Condia, 2012). Another recommendation for virtual teams is to utilize videoconferencing if facilities are available. The rationale is that richer forms of communication are possible such as the ability to observe verbal and visual cues (Chandler & Wallace, 2009).
Potential Problems Within CMTs
As in any group or team that works together, problems can arise. As previously mentioned, care should be taken to select team members who have good interpersonal skills and can work effectively as a unit. “If a team is dysfunctional before a crisis occurs, that team will have a dysfunctional response during an incident” (Barton, 2001, pp. 17–18). A number of problems can occur within the CMT. Bertrand and Lajtha (2002) summarize the common problems faced by the team:
Not Understanding the Symbolic and Sacred Aspects of a Crisis
A crisis is more than just an event; it is an attack on a specific stakeholder or institution, whether inside or outside the organization. Crises are perceived as “symptoms of underlying problems” and, as such, can be viewed as “policy fiascos” (Bovens & ’t Hart, 1996). Crises “challenge the foundation of organizations, governmental practice and even societal cohesion” (Lagadec, 2004, p. 167). As a result, certain stakeholders may feel threatened by these events and perceive them to have deeper significance. For example, when a large company is involved in an environmental accident, the event is not just “an accident.” It is perceived to be a big corporate giant exploiting the natural environment for its own gain.
Bertrand and Jajtha maintain that CMT training needs to include understanding the symbolic impact of a crisis. Hence, when media and community stakeholders appear to act irrationally, the CMT should seek to understand the reasons why they act that way. Put differently, most stakeholders do not try to act irrationally. From their point of view, their behavior is reasonable.
Not Being Able to Make Decisions Because of a Lack of Information
Many managers are effective at making some decisions when key information is lacking. Although complete information is preferred, decisions are frequently made under conditions of high uncertainty. When the organization is thrust into a crisis, the CMT must be able to make difficult decisions. This reality is a part of the charge that comes with their service on the CMT.
Lack of Interest and Involvement of Senior Management
It is difficult to promote a crisis preparedness atmosphere if the senior managers are not on board. As Bertrand and Lajtha (2002) lament, “Why do many top managers devote so little time to crisis management planning and training when the return on the small investment may be huge—and even commercially life-saving?” (p. 185). A central theme of this book is that crisis management is a key part of the strategic management process; top management must be supportive and involved.
Lack of Psychological Preparation Provided to CMT Members
Crisis team members bring their own emotional baggage to the meetings. Some are more adept than others at handling the stresses and fears of working on the team. The fatigue factor will also play a role, earlier for some members, later for others. In most cases, however, there is no forewarning as to what the CMT is about to face. Training for the psychological aspects of these assignments should be included.
In summary, “Crises are characterized by the absence of obvious solutions, the scarcity of reliable information when it is needed, the lack of adequate time to reflect on and debate alternative courses of action” (Bertrand & Lajtha, 2002, p. 185). While it is easy to list the functional departments that should be represented on the CMT, it is much more sobering to realize the intensity of the challenges team members must face.
Several other challenges can surface with the CMT, including groupthink, operating in different time zones, verbal aggressiveness, and the presence of a Machiavellian personality.
Groupthink
Janis (1982) identified groupthink as a problem in the decision-making process of groups and teams. Groupthink occurs when the team does not consider all of the alternatives and potential scenarios associated with a problem. While group cohesiveness can be a positive, too much can foster an atmosphere of groupthink. The rationale is that group members, unwilling to speak up and question the status quo or the leader or the conventional wisdom, remain passive so as not to upset the equilibrium of the group. Groupthink can be particularly present in crisis situations (Chandler & Wallace, 2009). In the crisis management literature, Lintonen (2004) discusses how groupthink influenced the European Union’s (EU) adopting sanctions against Russia during the Chechnya crisis.
There are several ways to combat groupthink on the CMT (Simola, 2005). Crisis teams can benefit from an outside consultant who can offer crisis management expertise and also challenge the group on erroneous assumptions. The team leader should be impartial, being careful not to state his or her personal preferences before a decision has been made (Cho, 2005). Above all, alternative viewpoints should be fostered as a means of combating poor decision making. “The presence of team members who view the problem differently may stimulate others in the team to discover novel approaches that they would not have considered, thereby leading to better decisions” (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 2012, p. 323).
Practicing in Different Time Zones
When a crisis spans times zones, coordination problems can surface. For the multinational corporation with locations worldwide, it is necessary to negotiate different time zones and languages. Perhaps a key factory has been hit by a typhoon, tsunami, or earthquake. Or a facility on the other side of the world has caught fire. Coordinating relief efforts to get the facility back on line is made more difficult because of the obvious logistic and time complications. One remedy is using the partially distributed or virtually distributed crisis management team discussed earlier.
Verbal Aggressiveness
Chandler (2001) warned of team members who can become overbearing or even hostile. Such people should be screened out as CMT candidates early in the team selection process because they can obstruct group decision making and hamper open communication. Specific criteria should be established for membership on a CMT.
Machiavellian Personality
This person’s main goal is simply trying to look good and advance his or her personal agenda. Chandler (2001) also recommends avoiding this person and instead looking for a team player who has the heart for solving problems. If the rest of the CMT is especially compliant, groupthink could possibly result if the Machiavellian type is present.
The Crisis Management Plan
Once the CMT is in place, efforts can be made to construct the crisis management plan. The CMP is not just a plan that exists on a company website or is stored in a notebook on a shelf; it is a systematic way of thinking about organizational crises. Top management support is also important in the development of the CMP (Pennington-Gray, Thapa, Kaplanidou, Cahyanto, & McLaughlin, 2011).
In managing a crisis, flexibility is favored over a rigid step-by-step procedure. In technical operations, such an approach is necessary for the diagnosis and remedy of certain problems. In a crisis, however, when human, technical, and other unknown elements are integrated, some degree of flexibility is required to discern and act on the situation. Having a standard operating procedure (SOP) manual is essential for all members of the team. Moreover, it should be compiled and put into a pocketsized book that can be readily available for immediate use when a crisis occurs.
Plans should not be compiled just for the sake of meeting a compliance regulation (Bertrand & Lajtha, 2002). While this provides motivation to write the plan, it does not set the proper tone. Ultimately, a plan should encourage the crisis team to think critically about what could happen and plan for mitigation efforts for a crisis that does occur. The problem with writing a plan just to have one is that it may not be reviewed on a regular basis, if at all. An outline of what should be included in a CMP is provided in the Appendix at the end of this book.
Basic Components of the Plan
The CMP is likely to be found on the organization’s Web page as well as in a hard copy notebook. The degree of detail can vary, but a concise plan is usually preferable to a longer one (Barton, 2001; Coombs, 2007). Again, this ensures that an element of flexibility is present in the crisis response. The following components are recommended for the CMP.
Cover Page
The cover page includes the name of the organization, general contact information, date of distribution, and the company logo. The page also labels the document as the crisis management plan. A disclaimer may be added stating that the document is confidential, and unauthorized use is prohibited.
Table of Contents
Although the document should not be too lengthy, a table of contents should be included. Crisis plans that are located on the organization’s website should include appropriate links to sections within the document, as well as to appropriate websites for emergency providers and other crisis websites that could be useful.
Crisis Management Team Members
Team members should be listed along with their respective departments and contact information, including e-mail addresses, office phone, home phone, and cell phone numbers.
Team Member Responsibilities
This section will vary in its degree of detail. Larger and more complex organizations such as a research university should include more detail than a small organization such as a community high school. CMT members are selected as representatives from their functional areas of the organization, so it is expected they will be operating within their areas of expertise during the crisis. Two decisions that need to be determined before a crisis are (1) Who is in charge of the team, and (2) who are the designated company spokespersons to the media? It is also important to keep the team format flexible so it can adapt to the particular crisis at hand.
Activation of the CMT
The crisis management plan should include the procedures for activating the CMT. While some may view this as a formality, it is important to plan even this part of the event. Usually, the team will be activated by a team member or at the request of a key internal stakeholder. It is important that employees in the organization know who the CMT members are, as well. In some cases, employees may contact a team member instead of the police if they are not sure if an event is really a crisis. It would then be up to the CMT to determine whether police involvement is necessary.
Command Center Locations
The command center is a prearranged meeting location where the CMT gathers in the event of a crisis. The plan should clearly label both this location (the primary command center) and the alternate command center in case the primary one is damaged in some way—perhaps due to weather or a fire. Care should be taken not to locate the alternate command center too close in physical proximity to the primary one lest an event such as a flood or fire causes both centers to be unusable.
If the crisis involves a crime or physical damage to some aspect of the building facilities, an incident command center may be set up near the location of the actual crisis. This would be the case when emergency response providers are working a particular event while the CMT is meeting at the command center. With this type of arrangement, clear communication links will be needed between the incident command center and the CMT at the primary command center. Such a scenario could occur if there is a hostage situation in one location of the complex while the CMT is meeting in another part. It is common for these types of separate command center arrangements to occur on college and university campuses because the sprawling complex of buildings that exist.
Response Plans for Specific Crisis Situations
The CMP will have a list of prospective crisis events that could likely occur at the organization. This section is the longest in the CMP because specific crises are identified and a response plan is offered for each of these events. The plan should list the potential crisis at the top of the page and then follow with a series of bulleted steps on how to manage that event. For example, most CMPs have a response page for a bomb threat that is called in to the organization. Hotels are required to have an evacuation plan for their guests and employees. In fact, for hotels, a fire is typically the most serious crisis because mass causalities are possible (Gonzalez, 2008).
The length of the response plan will vary according to the crisis. Individuals who write response plans should attempt to be thorough yet concise, remembering that too many steps in the response plan can limit flexibility. Table 5.2 lists common crisis events addressed in CMPs at colleges and universities.
Table 5.2 Potential Crises for American Colleges and Universities
Distribution of the CMP
The CMP should be made available throughout the organization. There was once a time when distribution was often limited to CMT members. Unless there is proprietary information or confidentiality concern, however, the plan should be posted on the company’s intranet at a minimum. For example, many colleges, universities, and school districts post their plans online for public viewing as well.
Crisis Management Training
The CMT is charged with the oversight of training in the area of crisis management. Training can range from simple meetings that review the CMP to providing classroom instruction on certain aspects of crisis management. Training can also include conducting smaller disaster drills that test a segment of the crisis response to taking part in elaborate mock disasters when a crisis is simulated so the team can practice its response. If the organization is large, the human resource management department (also referred to as human resource development in some organizations) may be better equipped to lead training exercises in crisis management (Moats, Chermack, & Dooley, 2008).
Regular CMT Meetings
The CMT should meet on a scheduled basis several times a year. Such meetings provide training opportunities as well as opportunities for team members to interact and bond. Both academic institutions and business organizations should consider meeting at least twice a year, although more meetings will be necessary in the initial stages of team development. Also, specific crises that may be threatening the firm will warrant more frequent meetings. Potential training activities that can be held during meetings include reviewing the CMP, conducting tabletop exercises, planning for larger-scale disaster exercises or mock disasters, and presenting new material on crisis management.
Reviewing All or a Part of the CMP
Reading the CMP refamiliarizes team members with the material. In addition, if editing errors are discovered, they can easily be corrected during the meeting if the document file is projected on a screen for all to see. When changes are necessary, they should be carried out during the meeting with the new plan revised and posted on the organization’s website the same day. A hard copy of the CMP should also be kept up to date in case electronic access to the plan is not possible during a crisis.
Conducting Tabletop Exercises
This type of training occurs in the meeting room and involves a discussion of how the team would respond to a specific crisis. It is a form of a disaster drill, but without the realistic scenarios that are characteristic of a mock disaster. A tabletop exercise can be an inexpensive way to rehearse for a real disaster (Careless, 2007). Of course, the term tabletop is important because the training never leaves the meeting room; hence, there are some limitations in such an exercise. Still, their use is common and the benefits are clear.
A training workshop can be held in conjunction with a tabletop exercise. Workshops may last for several days and address a specific type of crisis. For example, workshops combined with tabletop exercises have been used for training against coastal terrorism (Richter et al., 2005). Cognitive mapping has also been used as a tabletop exercise. In this exercise, participants are asked to draw spatial maps of a developing crisis and then develop scenarios for managing the event (Alexander, 2004). Such an exercise is useful for those involved in disaster response activities.
Presenting New Material on Crisis Management
This training approach can be flexible. A video can be shown, a guest speaker brought in, or the team can take part in a video conference. The objective is to learn new material that will assist the team in its response to a crisis.
Disaster Drills
While a mock disaster is more comprehensive and tests the overall team response, a disaster drill is a smaller exercise that addresses one aspect of the crisis response (Coombs, 2007). Drills are meant to test a part of the crisis response. Examples of training drills include:
Sending an emergency phone message and e-mail to all the employees in the organization. This drill is practical because an alert of a crisis may need to be sent at a moment’s notice. Perhaps a tornado has been spotted in the area or an individual with a gun is seen in the facility. The drill should also include sending text or voice messages to each employee’s cell phone.
Conducting a building evacuation drill. This is perhaps the most common drill; it reminds many of us of the standard fire drill. Building evacuations frequently occur in schools as part of their regular scheduled training.
While evacuations are relatively simple in schools and other settings, they can be more complicated elsewhere, such as in a nursing home. Residents of nursing homes may also need to leave the area after a building evacuation, especially if there is threatening weather, such as a hurricane or flooding. An inadequate evacuation of a nursing home can result in patient deaths. Indeed, after Hurricane Katrina, two nursing homes in Louisiana were charged with negligent homicide in the deaths of 34 residents (Dewan & Baker, 2005). Two items essential to an effective nursing home evacuation include clear travel routes and adequate hydration provisions for the patients (Castle, 2008).
Testing a procedure that is unique to the facility. A library is an example of a facility with unique crisis scenarios. Libraries house collections of materials that are at risk for roof leaks, pest infestations, fire, theft, mold, security problems, and accumulations of dust and dirt (Yeh, McMullen, & Kane, 2010).
A common crisis scenario for a library is the loss of documents and books due to water damage. In light of this possibility, some libraries practice unique water drills. The Stetson University Law Library held a drill scenario in which a water sprinkler head had malfunctioned and was spraying water onto shelves of books. The personnel practiced draping the shelves with plastic tarps as quickly as possible (Rentschler & Burdett, 2006).
Conducting an active shooter exercise. These drills involve the simulation of an armed individual on the premises of the facility. They need to coordinate with local law enforcement agencies and other emergency providers to assist in the drill. Shopping malls are often utilized for this type of exercise, and for good reasons. On October 21, 2010, a man claiming to have a gun barricaded himself in a store at the Roseville Galleria in California, later resulting in a fire that caused substantial damage to the mall. On January, 8, 2011, a gunman killed six people at a strip shopping center in Tucson, Arizona (Bell, 2011).
One mall operator, the Cafaro Company out of Youngstown, Ohio, has conducted six active shooter exercises at its facilities, including one at the Meadowbrook Mall, in Bridgeport, West Virginia, in January 2011. The event involved two “recently fired employees” who demanded to see the mall manager. The role-playing involved shots being fired. Participants included nearly 200 volunteer shoppers, the West Virginia State Police, the county sheriff’s department, a local hospital, and teams from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) (Bell, 2011).
Accessing and using firefighting equipment. Such equipment is required in all buildings, but training employees to use the equipment properly may be inconsistent. Local fire departments are usually willing to provide such training onsite. In addition, the fire department can also learn more about the unique features of the building, helping it compile a “preplan,” a prearranged response to a fire in that particular building.
Conducting a lockdown drill: Securing the classroom(s) or building by locking the doors and requiring students (or employees) to stay inside, rather than exiting the building as in a fire drill. The intended purpose of a real lockdown is to protect the occupants of the room (building) in the event of a shooting or related incident. Lockdown drills became more frequent after the Columbine, Colorado, massacre (Kass & Marek, 2005), and their practice has increased as a result of the Virginia Tech massacre and other incidents of school violence. Such drills are not limited to schools, however. Incidents of workplace violence also require that employees be in a secure place in the event of a shooting. Thus, a lockdown drill would be advisable in nonschool settings as well.
Activating sheltering in place. A variation of the lockdown drill involves not only securing the building, but moving occupants to a more central location for additional security. In the United States, this type of drill, called “sheltering in place,” has been practiced in school systems close to the nation’s ports (Jacobson, 2003). Because ports have been identified as potential terrorist targets, population centers near these ports need to be prepared. Sheltering-in-place drills can include the shutting down of heating and air conditioning systems as well as sealing air inflow openings near windows. Such a move would be likely in response to a chemical or biological terrorist attack.
Conduct shower drills. In a very specialized drill, companies that use hazardous chemicals are being encouraged to conduct “shower drills” (Hayes, 2011). The danger in these environments is that a dangerous chemical may come in contact with a worker, resulting in the need to flush the chemical off the skin as quickly as possible. Shower units that offer privacy can be positioned in work areas and should offer adequate water pressure at comfortable temperatures for 15 minutes, the required Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standard.
The Mock Disaster
A mock disaster is a scenario that is recreated so that a number of crisis management participant–stakeholders can respond to it. It operates in real time, in a setting that is as realistic as possible to a real crisis. A mock disaster is more comprehensive than a disaster drill. Mock disasters are widely recognized as essential in testing an organization’s disaster plan (Perry, 2004).
Purpose of a Mock Disaster
A mock disaster can serve a number of purposes. Its practicality is enhanced by the number of people who can participate, the media attention that is received, and the usefulness of testing the organization’s crisis response. The following section explains the intended purposes of the mock disaster:
To activate and test the working of the CMT. This type of exercise involves the full activation of the CMT as well as the appropriate emergency providers in the community, such as law enforcement, fire departments, and emergency medical services. One of the most important goals is to ensure that the CMT is alerted to a crisis in a timely manner. The working dynamics of the team can also be evaluated. Do team members work effectively as a unit? Are there any interpersonal problems that need to be addressed? Is there anyone who is not a good fit to serve on the team?
To test communication networks and equipment. A mock disaster should test the communication systems that will be used during an actual crisis. Telephone systems, mobile radios, the intranet, social media messaging, and the Internet should all be activated and used during the drill. In addition, local fire and police departments may have special equipment they need to test. For example, robots are used in certain firefighting situations and in bomb removal and detonation. A mock disaster is an excellent opportunity for testing this type of specialized equipment.
Banks should test their crisis readiness on a regular basis. Several years ago, the Farmington Savings Bank (FSB) staged a mock disaster to test the components of its backup information systems arrangement. The bank has 13 branches in central Connecticut. The scenario involved working with its disaster recovery provider; which supplied a trailer, a power generator, and 20 personal computers (Arnfield, 2009). After conducting the training exercise, bank executives learned that if more than 10 phone lines were in use, the satellite link did not function properly. In addition, slow bandwidth affected the printing of documents stored on the disaster recovery server. Remedying these problems was relatively easy, but identifying them through the disaster drill was the only way to identify them in the first place.
To test the effectiveness of the command center. If the command center has never been used for an actual crisis, it should be activated during the mock disaster. When Concord College held its first mock disaster (see the opening case for this chapter), a major shortcoming was discovered with its primary command center. The problem was that all radio communications were funneled into one large room, the same general area where the media were also assembling. When mock reporters heard the reports coming in from the incident command center, they demanded an explanation from the president of the college, who just happened to be listening to the same reports in the command center (Crandall, 1997). After the drill, a new command center in a different building was designated with a separate room for media briefings.
To develop working relationships with local fire and police departments. In the event of a real emergency, the local fire and police departments will be the first responders to the event. Developing relationships with these agencies before a crisis occurs is recommended. The mock disaster is an excellent vehicle for accomplishing this goal.
To build team cohesiveness and camaraderie. A CMT may actually function quite well in a noncrisis setting. Regularly scheduled meetings and training sessions are low-stress contact points. A mock disaster, however, adds a sense of urgency and purpose to the working relationships of the CMT. After working together on a large-scale exercise, which can be physically and emotionally challenging, team members may find they are more cohesive and appreciative of each other.
To learn where the organization’s crisis response needs improvement. A well-designed mock disaster should test the key areas of crisis response and be rigorous enough to expose weak points. At the Stetson University Law Library, the mock disaster discussed previously revealed that response times to a water leak emergency needed to be improved (Rentschler & Burdett, 2006). A mock disaster at the Arco Chemical plant in South Charleston, West Virginia, revealed that media briefings were being rushed; not a good situation given the fact that this particular drill involved a sinking barge full of chemicals spilling its contents into the Kanawha River (Swift, 2004).
Another common area of weakness during a crisis is message overload; too much information going through the system can be hard for employees to interpret. “A common failure is basic system overloads. … Are too many messages being sent? Are people not understanding all the messages? Are they not coming in chronological order?” (Morton, 2011, p. 26).
A mock disaster can also alert the CMT where additional training is needed. For example, all mock disasters should include holding a staged press conference and answering hypothetical questions from reporters. Training other employees in this function in addition to the official spokesperson is recommended. The company spokesperson may not be available during a crisis that requires a response to the media. Mock disasters can be useful in determining how “polished” these backup spokespersons are and whether they need additional training.
Guidelines for Setting Up a Mock Disaster
A mock disaster should be planned like any other project. There should be a person in charge, a set of goals and objectives, a delegated list of duties, and a timeline for scheduling the drill. Specific considerations are discussed next.
Determine the objectives of the drill. A mock disaster tests some response systems, but not the organization’s entire crisis response capability. The CMT should determine several key areas that need to be tested and include those in the plan. All mock disasters should test communication capabilities and interviews by the media.
If specific equipment is part of the crisis response, then it should be tested as well. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaskan waters is known for the massive amounts of oil that damaged the environment. What is less well known is that Exxon had a response plan for an oil spill in that area. Unfortunately, the boat that was designated to set up perimeter booms around the spill was being repaired at the time of the spill (Hartley, 1993). The role of equipment, then, is paramount in certain areas of crisis response. Testing that equipment should be part of the mock drill.
Develop a scenario that represents a potential crisis at your organization. As addressed in previous chapters, crisis assessment activities reveal potential crisis events that could occur in the organization. Some of these crises have geographic considerations, such as earthquakes along the whole west coast of the United States, volcano activity at Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier, hurricanes in the southeastern United States, terrorism at various targets throughout the world, and wildfires in drier locations in the western United States. Some potential crises are industry specific: chemical spills (production industries), E. coli outbreaks (food industries), school violence (education), and computer hacking and viruses (any industry that depends on online sales). Thus, the mock disaster should involve a scenario that represents a real crisis the organization might face.
Be sure the top leaders in your organization are supportive and involved in the drill. Without their support, the project will not reach its full potential. Support and participation in the mock disaster shows employees that management takes these activities seriously. In the opening case, the president of the college was a member of the CMT and active in the mock disasters and training held at the school. His enthusiasm helped carry the drills through to successful implementation and completion. It also showed that he cared about instilling a culture in the organization that supported crisis planning.
Include as many parties as possible in planning the mock disaster. Despite their seriousness and intensity, mock disasters also have a social aspect to them in that groups of people are working together on a common project. This is not to imply that such drills are meant to be festive or partylike, but they are social gatherings even if the objective is serious. Hence, including as many individuals as possible who have a link to the drill is advisable. Enthusiasm for the drill can be high because participants are taking part in a social exercise while engaging in activities outside of their normal routines. Participating toward a common goal is also a satisfying experience.
Include local police, fire, and other emergency services. Fire and police departments spend a great deal of time in training activities. Most will be receptive to taking part in a mock disaster because it serves as a training opportunity for their departments as well. It is also beneficial in that CMT members can become acquainted with some of the key players within the emergency services departments.
Use mock reporters. Mock reporters are standard in any disaster exercise of this scope. The realistic scenario of being interviewed by the media can be unexpected and intimidating. Local university journalism students make a good source of mock reporters, because many will be working for the media in the future.
Sometimes the experience of working in a disaster exercise can lead to working on a real disaster. Mock reporters are used regularly at Syracuse University in disaster training. In 2002, however, the simulated chemical spill that was supposed to occur was replaced by the real thing. Two hours before the mock disaster, a real crisis developed when brown puddles of unknown origin formed inside the university’s biological research center. The real crisis resulted in the building being evacuated and the arrival of a hazardous material team, along with police and fire personnel (Strupp, 2002).
Use mock victims. Including mock victims with injuries is also useful in this type of exercise. Once again, local colleges and universities may be helpful (Crandall, 1997). The drama or theater department can supply “victims” who can be made up to look injured. This activity provides useful practice for these students who work both on and off stage.
Invite the media to come to your drill. In addition to using mock reporters, inviting the local media is an excellent idea as well. The training event can be featured in the local newspaper and on the television evening news. The publicity generated is usually well received because it shows the organization is being proactive in its crisis management efforts. In addition, local reporters can offer advice from their perspectives, some of which may be quite useful to the CMT.
Be sure all of the employees and local community are aware of the drill. The mock disaster should be well publicized to all employees and the local community so that citizens do not mistake the drill for a real crisis. One of the authors lives near a large military base that occasionally conducts mock exercises in the community. One such drill involved the use of a military team descending on an abandoned motel. Helicopters were flying overhead and soldiers were maneuvering around the facility. The drill was so extensive that spectators gathered across the street to watch. Fortunately, advance notice had been given to the community, and many were expecting this event as a form of entertainment for the evening. Several years later, the local fire department torched the entire facility in a dramatic blaze as a training exercise. Again, the community knew to expect a spectacular fire that night.
Guidelines While the Mock Disaster Is in Progress
Planning a mock disaster is an extensive process. The actual drill should proceed well if the guidelines presented here are applied. In addition, it is important that care be taken not to create a real crisis during the drill. Such events do occur and can result in injuries. If the fire department is involved, it will likely have a safety officer who helps ensure that injuries do not occur. Nonetheless, problems can develop, and anyone planning such an exercise should be aware of such possibilities. Case in point: in 2007, an elaborate search-and-rescue drill involving about 400 people was held off the coast of Newfoundland. The objective of the drill was to respond to a scenario in which a ferry was on fire. The drill involved evacuating passengers from the ferry into lifeboats. The drill took a realistic turn, however, when several passengers on one of the lifeboats were overcome by exhaust fumes and had to be airlifted by helicopter to a hospital (Brautigam, 2007).
A second consideration during a mock disaster is to remember that mistakes will be made during the drill. This is not a bad thing as long as serious damages and injuries are avoided, because one of the purposes is to identify crisis response weaknesses. Those involved should record any mistakes and discuss them during the debriefing meeting held after the mock disaster. One animal shelter staged a mock disaster involving the evacuation of all animals from the facility. Such an incident would be required if a natural disaster such as a hurricane was threatening. A number of small problems developed during the drill, including a fight between two dogs that were being held by volunteers in the waiting queue and a cat that escaped from its cage. Moreover, the volunteers who helped with the mock drill were plentiful but untrained in how to carry out their required roles, complicating the process considerably (Irvine, 2007). Hence, formal training for the volunteers was warranted.
A third guideline, which may be useful for catching mistakes, is to record the drill. When Concord College staged its first mock disaster, two photographers made video recordings. One cameraperson was at the incident command center, where the disaster scenario took place. The other recorded the meetings in the main command center, where most of the CMT was meeting. This arrangement was later useful for evaluation because CMT members at the command center could view what was happening at the incident area, and vice versa (Crandall, 1997).
Guidelines for After the Mock Disaster
Immediately after the drill, food and refreshments should be provided for all of those who participated. This step is highly recommended, as most participants will be exhausted. This social gathering also gives individuals time to reflect, relax, and build camaraderie.
Within one week of the drill, it is recommended that a debriefing meeting be held to discuss what was learned. Some teams may choose to debrief immediately after the mock disaster. This may be feasible if the drill did not last too long. Otherwise, it may be better to debrief on another day when the CMT is refreshed and mentally alert. Care should be taken not to wait too long after the event, however, lest team members forget some of the finer learning details of the drill. The lessons learned from the mock disaster may result in changes to the crisis management plan. These changes should be made soon in the master document and in any additional associated locations such as the organization’s website.
Summary
This chapter emphasized the importance of forming the crisis management team and writing the crisis management plan. The CMT is charged with developing a list of threats that face the organization and overseeing the compilation of the CMP. The CMP revolves around addressing these threats as well as providing other guidelines for how the organization should respond to a crisis.
The CMT also leads the training needed for crisis response. Regular meetings should be held to keep members familiar with the crisis plan, as well as to provide training for specific crisis events. Testing the crisis response of the organization is also important. Tabletop drills are short and confined to usually one room. A disaster drill is larger in scope and involves testing a single component of the organization’s crisis response. A mock disaster is larger in its inclusion of stakeholders and the number of crisis components being tested. All of these exercises fine-tune the CMT so that it is ready if and when a crisis occurs.
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