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Final Review of Literature and Illustrations Development and Develop Definition of Terms Section.
Does the American criminal justice system treat every citizen equally?
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Introduction
The current research study aims to investigate the interrelationship of Equality and the American criminal justice system for all citizens. The researcher has identified ‘Justice’ as an independent (Y) variable and socioeconomic status, gender, race/ethnicity, geographic location, and equality as dependent (X) variables. The study will be conducted based on two main hypotheses that measure the degree of correlation between the identified variables.
Purpose of the Study
The current study investigates the complexities of the interrelationship of Equality and the American criminal justice system to inspect whether the system treats every citizen equally. The study aims to determine how much the justice system (independent variable) is affected by the external factors (dependent variables) relevant to Equality. The study’s outcome will provide valuable data that can intervene to improve criminal justice practices, law enforcement, and policy proposals. Furthermore, the study can provide information for devising strategies to promote Equality and impartiality regardless of citizens’ gender, race, class, and geographic location. Hence, it will indirectly and directly contribute to the American criminal justice system.
Hypotheses
Ho: Equality of citizen’s rights ensures and directly impacts the American criminal justice system.
Ha: Equality of citizen’s rights does not ensure and has no direct impact on the American criminal justice system.
Study’s Research Question
The primary research question is, “Does the American criminal justice system treat every citizen equally?
Methodology and Research Design
This study will adopt mixed-method research to analyze the impact of Equality of citizens’ rights on the American Justice system. It will help to make a comprehensive analysis of the study.
1. Data
The study will use primary and secondary data to investigate the relationship between Equity and the American criminal justice system.
Primary Data: The primary data will be obtained through surveys because the study involves demographic variables such as gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. The survey instrument will be administered to participants from the relevant demographic backgrounds. The survey will get information directly from the participants about their perceptions and experiences with the justice system. Moreover, their opinions regarding Equality and access to justice will also be obtained through surveys.
Secondary Data: The secondary data will be gathered from existing sources such as governmental reports, statistical databases, scholarly literature, and court cases. In the USA, several courts have online websites that provide the necessary case details. The researcher will consult the PACER system (Public Access to Court Electronic Records) for the current study to access the case history and other information. The case details will be extracted from the legal databases, including LexisNexis, Westlaw, HeinOnline, and Bloomberg Law if required. The secondary data will provide evidence and affirm or negate participants’ perspectives about the American criminal justice system. Additionally, the secondary data will provide the context and background information about the primary data.
2. Variables
Figure 1. Interrelationship of Y-independent and X-dependent (X1, X2, X3, X4) variables
Unequal Treatment: dependent variable Y
Unfortunately, the phenomenon of discrimination represents an ever-ongoing, serious problem in our vibrant and diverse society and, consequently, is a large part of the United States’ justice system. Also, it is worth mentioning that this problem has made the community doubt the fundamental principles of the justice system: Equality and impartiality. Disclaimer of the fact that we surprisingly aim at equal treatment regardless of individual differences and the implementation of the non-preferential principle in a number of these aspects for most people may be standard, but is not normal. In many papers written, research done, and court cases, witnesses have testified, people sentenced, and so on, the same disparities shine through, which then again asks the question, does the system have the capacity to dole out justice for all the people?
X1: Sentencing
The U.S. Criminal Justice System embodies a coherent process of steps connecting to judgments regarding fairness considerations. It includes an identical function of sentencing as a variable, which can result in a sequence of consequences and can be perceived as a principle of fairness by the public. On the other hand, and despite the measures taken to make the system consistent, this inter-sentencing disparity still exists. In many cases, the justice system and sentencing practice are affected by not only race but also socioeconomic status and geographical position, among other things. This reveals the fact that there is some revolutionary power, which under such a circumstance could turn into subject an issue for questioning whether the system is legitimate and could work for the interest of all. Indeed, rules for sentencing and using the justice of the society most seriously are, for most part, engaged with the further understanding of the unequal societies. Savolainen (2023) stated that social and racial injustice is so ordinary in the sentencing and judiciary system of the US. The criminal justice outcomes reveal that racial disparities are so common, and this thing is leading to unequal treatment in society. According to this research paper, there is an ultimate need to justify the sentencing process without making the differentiation. The theoretical framework has been designed based on the previous literature study. Systematic reviews have been done to find out the actual results. They have considered all the recent literature to find out the actual unequal treatment in sentencing justice, and the observations have predicted that this injustice is genuine. Injustice can be found in the treatment, such as prioritizing one person over another. The lifestyle in the prison can also create ample defense. The people coming after doing the same offense are being treated differently, and these discriminations are not tolerated, especially in Justice. The conclusion of the research paper discusses the fact that injustice in the justice system is not recommended, and in sentencing, unequal treatment is present in various communities, but it should be eradicated. The criminal justice outcomes would get better (Savolainen, 2023).
Light (2021) has investigated the US federal system regarding racial classification in criminal sentencing. According to this research, racial classifications in sentencing were so common in the past, but in the last few decades, the trends have changed, and the systems are getting better. It is detailed research in which statistics from the recent past are explained. Light (2021) states that first, there was a difference of 3 years in the sentencing system of white and black defendants and subjecting this difference to the federal courts. According to Light (2021), the 2018 statistics show that this difference was 6 mos., and then the gap between white and black defendants was 46 mos., and then ultimately, it led to zero. So, this is the best research in which the sentencing system is diminishing the gaps based on the different races and ethnicities, which is a perfect stance. The study findings are based on three distinct features, and all three present that racial classifications should be minimized. Positive outcomes have been seen among black and white people when the gaps between sentencing inequalities have decreased (Light, 2021).
Gertner, 2022 states that the Federal Sentencing Commission has investigated the inequality in the sentencing system, and it was reported long ago. According to this research, a new commission for sentencing in the federal courts has been formed. The main aim of this commission was to rule out the actual discrimination present in criminal Justice for black and white people. Black and white people can face injustice, which is why the deformities in the overall justice system can be seen. Systematic research has represented the stance of inequality, and the commission proves that the discrimination was presented and must be demolished. The findings of the research show that the disparity in treatment is a big question mark on the federal system and federal which is why the amendments are making their way. The amendments would lead to the actual success of the justice system (Gertner, 2022).
X2: Discrimination
Illegality still prevailed in the American legal system as one of the foremost perpetrators of this injustice issue is still in existence, which, in turn, creates doubts among the implicated parties whether they would receive fair treatment as well as corruption of the general perception of the justice system. It is the immateriality of racism that bothers the color of skin, gender, race, or even some other reason as a basis. The discriminatory acts shall be in the movement of patrolling officers and run through the whole process of the courtroom in various ways. The generalization is one of the most common stereotypes. It is usually the cause of an unfair situation in the community, such as unequal arrests, sentences, and reception of services. Eliminating discrimination becomes a transcending quality of the criminal justice system, which might seem to overstep the doubts and thereby find affirming its credibility and purpose. Ranti Nurmaily (2021) has stated that the judicial system and the court system are the prevalence of significant discrimination and racial profiling. The police play an essential role in bringing this racial system into being. Black and white people are discriminated against even though the justice criteria are different for these races. These things are unacceptable for the common public as they suffer much stress and inequality in treating justice. The typical library research has been done with qualitative analysis. The quantitative analysis provides an in-depth review of the topic. It has been studied in a way that a film was designed later on. Ranti & Nurmaily (2021) stated that the American law system and discrimination are on the threshold of demoralizing the whole system, which is working for Justice with the racial classifications. Discrimination is something when one defendant is prioritized over the other one. The police service plays the most critical role in the racial discrimination. The findings of this research paper suggest that racial discrimination is creating an unequal environment for the ordinary person. It is leading to stress, and the media is biased in this aspect.
X3: Representation
Representation is one with many other factors significantly influencing the American system of justice, and even if the different variables—the organization, efficiency, and credibility of the legal system are considered- representation remains one of the most important factors. Institutes should increase the protection of a defendant to allow who can have a noticeable defense and a fair lawful action yet, the number of the people who cannot get a proper trial and justice as per old laws has seen a sharp increase, specifically, among those at the margins, including the most vulnerable in society. Lack of fair and proper representation may lead to the creating of such consequences as being represented by not enough and vice versa leaving the gaps in the principal rights that forbids the unequal treatment of people who have the legal rights. Jackson and Henderson (2019) have explained how the criminal justice system and its inequality are taking the lives of minorities. The racial classification and the discrimination based on these classifications are the worst ones. All of these classifications are bringing so much destruction to the social justice system of the communities. Equality of treatment is the ultimate need of the communities. The study in which assistance from the past literature has been taken to determine the actual happening in the justice system. The multiple regression analysis was conducted, and the student’s perception of the social justice system explained the study’s findings. The findings of this study indicate that white people are more sensitive towards treatment, and their loud voices are being considered, but black people face real discrimination. The study has presented the future direction that discrimination based on racial profile must be limited, and Justice should be provided based on crime without realizing the gender and race of the criminal. This is the only reliable way in which the inequality from this biased system can be removed effectively (Jackson & Henderson, 2019).
Tadros (2023) stated that the American culture is vast, but racial discrimination is so expressive in this criminal justice system. Especially when there is talk about the Justice and criminal judiciary system, there is always a racial classification that is being seen most significantly. This discrimination not only impacts the justice system but also causes many of the wrong decisions to be made under this classification. This study was conducted under some discrimination against African American adolescents. They are one of the most sensitive and vulnerable populations. The unjust treatment impacts their mental well-being and their social life. The findings of this research indicate that social life and the liberty of living must be granted to everyone without racial classification. The racial classification cannot allow black and white people to make harmony, so this is the reason that things can get worse in the criminal justice system. The legislative laws should be the same for everyone. These discriminations can change or destroy the perspective of living. Adolescent communities can become even more vulnerable to the wrong practice of Justice (Tadros, 2023).
X4: Policies
Policies, built-in to the U.S. justice system, play an important role in actions of criminal justice and determine the result of applied methods. Hence, these could be seen as the independent variables of the factor responsible for the emergence of such imbalances and equilibrium disturbances. Policies set boundaries of the desired practitioner actions; thus, they include all officers’ attitude towards defendants as well as how the defendant will be sentenced. As a result of the policy disparity, in particular, in comparison with the policymaking and implementation process, the inequality problem gets more serious. As illustration, bringing into the picture of compulsory sentencing and the stop-and-search procedures is one of the techniques that lead to privacy infringement especially in some communities. The essential goals of analyzing and restructuring the current policies are laid down in the foundation of a crime policy system that will later prove to be fair and appropriated. Rucker and Richeson (2021) have stated that racial inequality is present in all criminal justice systems. The policies and the trends of their implementation depict how this injustice can lead to depravities in the communities. This practice is prevalent in the American community. Racial discrimination justice is being granted to the people, which can cause so much harm and so much reduction in the meaningful justice-granting schemes. The structural factors must be arranged so that the discrimination must be minimized to the maximum extent. The findings show that these policies of injustice are leading to disparities in fundamental human rights toward minorities (Rucker & Richeson, 2021).
Socioeconomic status disparities
Brunson and Stewart (2021) have stated that in the US criminal justice system, race, ethnicity, and social classification are very common. The prevalence of these discriminations is also present in the policies, which is causing the ultimate trouble in the new system as in this era, everyone is aware of fundamental human rights. These human rights can only be preserved if the system works effectively towards equal criminal justice criteria. The systematic research presents that industrialized nations and countries seek justice through equal treatment and solid policies. All of these policies must be made without any discrimination. Offending minorities and victimizing their justice rights is not a recommendable thing in sentencing justice. The research concludes by providing practical ways to spread equal justice for everyone (Brunson & Stewart, 2021).
Unequal treatment
Jackson et al. (2021) explained that women in America get more lenient treatment in criminal justice. The gender-based discrimination is so real, and this is growing by the day. Women can be prioritized, but the racial classification is only tolerable at some points. The right to live and the right to legislation are the same and equal for everyone in the community. Thus, the findings show that the injustice in the US policies leads to terrorist acts, and if the discrimination is so prevalent. The criminal justice system will face a more significant decline fall. Such pitfalls are not easy to handle, and they can lead to ultimate destruction (Jackson et al., 2021)
Gender-based discrimination
Gebru (2020) stated that gender-based discrimination is present in the criminal justice system of America. Gender-based discrimination and discrimination are also familiar. This book provides all the relevant details about the United States’ systematic order and justice policies. According to the research, modifications in the justice system and judiciary policies are required to take systematic measures and decrease discrimination in society. Gender and racial classifications are unnecessary in any judiciary or federal system (Gebru, 2020).
3. Sample Size and Sampling Strategy
For the current study, n=50 participants will be included as a sample. The participants will be selected from various demographic backgrounds. The study will employ a stratified sampling technique so that all the demographic variables are represented in the sample. Zip codes and other psychographic data will assist in characterizing the sample and in identifying potential bias. A detailed description of the sample is as follows:
4. Instrument
The primary instrument will be the survey questionnaire developed on the Likert scale. It will include a series of close-ended questions regarding participant’s perceptions of Equality within the criminal justice system. A few open-ended questions can also be included for gathering comprehensive information. All the questions will be developed considering the research objectives, hypotheses and variables. The participants will show their level of agreement along a scale structured as follows:
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
5. Fieldwork
Fieldwork will involve accessing the participants from the target population. The researcher himself will collect the data from the participants. However, other individuals (such as from the local community) can also be involved in the fieldwork, depending on their research abilities. It will be ensured that the researchers are not biased and that data integrity and security are maintained. The participants will be approached in predetermined locations such as public parks, libraries, community centers, and restaurants. They will be informed about the purpose and nature of the survey to obtain their consent. The study will implement strict protocols and research ethics to ensure the privacy and confidentiality of respondents.
Survey
Y1 (Unequal Treatment)
X1 (Sentencing)
X2 (Discrimination)
X3 (Representation)
X4 (Policies)
5
4
5
5
4
4
5
5
3
5
5
5
4
5
5
The survey outcomes are sign refers to the perceptive and the independent variables are interred conned in the American criminal justice system. To start with an excellent rating “Unequal Treatment” (Y4) with most of the respondents choose either 4 or 5 This, therefore, proves that there are some people who think that existence of different laws like the welfare reform and strict immigration laws which affect the Native American people is violation of the published research that showcases racial inequality and socioeconomic gap.
After these, the next part called “Sentencing” (X1) presents opposing views of players, sometimes in the neutral direction but yet an appreciative one. People just referred to the diversity of opinions on the particular desire for fairness, knowledge of sentencing discrimination or lack thereof but the results been mixed. The qualitative difference has a clear indicator of the mentioned issues but the results could be differentiated by some other factors like race or socioeconomic status. The next is “Discrimination T2 which often generates high feelings and one can conclude that it is a clear reflection of the society on racism and the occurrence of bias in the criminal justice system. Thereby, it is proof of prevalence of bias as well as inequality, and even shows where it is found in different kinds of legal cases at the stage of the first contact with the police and the last minutes when the judgment is given. The analysis number four, also known as “Representation”, is marked as the most important one by a significant amount of people since they tend to agree that it is essential, especially in the justice system, to have a good representation. This gives precisely a law that decodes the role of having an attorney to give so that jurisdiction of facts and that of the outcome are fair to the criminals.
Literature Review
Author
Year of Publication
Title
Rationale of Selecting
Justice, B., & Meares, T. L.
(2014)
How the criminal justice system educates citizens
This research gives the possibility to see the criminal justice system in the United States with all the benefits it brings to those with power and all kinds of harm it can cause to everyday people. It is an article that discusses and is a worthy source of information for learning about hidden dangers and inequalities and eventually solving the research question precisely.
Sherman, L. W.
(2002)
Trust and confidence in criminal justice
The following passage is connected to the research purpose as it ponders how collective opinions and trends that affect people’s confidence and trust levels are manifested on the federal level. These perspectives are essential since the administration of the criminal justice system is thereby assured on equal terms.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M
(2005)
Explaining the great racial divide: Perceptions of fairness in the US criminal justice system
This research project will discover population viewpoints concerning justice in the criminal process. It shall also explore whether race plays a role in the administration of justice in the criminal justice system. This study is significant in the sense that it illuminates the perception that different racial groups have regarding the system which is fairness and so from this a picture can be drawn that the inequality might be there and what is the reason and finally if the international treatment is across the board or not.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M
(2010)
And justice for some: Race, crime, and punishment in the US criminal justice system
This study shall overview the issues of race, crime, and penalty of the US legal system and their interactions in this context. This research is monumental because it can highlight the adversities that might cause race discrimination in the justice system and provides insight into the search for the exactness in its implementation and, therefore, evenness in the treatment of all Americans.
Robinson, P. H., & Cahill, M. T
(2005)
Law without justice: Why criminal law doesn’t give people what they deserve
This inquiry is pivotal in uncovering the concepts of law and justice. Simply in this research, the point being investigated is the inequality of justice output and the public untrustworthiness which raise questions on the trustworthiness of criminal justice system existence on fairness and equal treatment of the involved.
De Soto, W
(2018)
Do police officers in the USA protect and serve all citizens equally?
Three parts of the essay were focused on the gap that police departments face in their coverage and the services that they offer in the USA. Substantially, the basis of this study rests on the analysis of perception and experience of justice and fairness in policing. The study findings will be utilized appropriately to identify inequalities and biases within the police systems.
Butler, P.
(2015)
The system is working the way it is supposed to: the limits of criminal justice reform
The analyzed topic was focused on evaluating the gains and losses of punishment reform programs The finding of this study gives very relevant insights that indicate the dynamics of the courts and the possible prisons in order to all together help in the discussions of whether or not the changes are feasible and what might be the outcomes of any changes.
Heuer, L
(2005)
What’s Just about the Criminal Justice System-A Psychological Perspective
The main objective of this work was dealing with the justice paradigm in the criminal justice system, where all the psychological factors were given a special significance. The study reveals the cognitive and behavioral dimensions that create the notion or perception of fairness and also sheds light on the psychological processes involved in relating oneself to the criminal justice system, thus making the system function.
As per the study of Hurwitz & Peffley (2021), the social factors, such as Unequal Treatment, Sentencing, Discrimination, Representation and Policies of the domestic criminal justice reveal a pattern of sophisticated schemes the outlook of which and people’s involvement defines their level of fairness. Scholars with different levels of proficiency have all collectively targeted both the issue of the discrimination and those who often think that they should be the ones to be given opportunities. They focus on the issue of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Research into the criminal justice system so far points to the existence of biasing elements within the criminal justice process at different stages, be it police work, imprisonment, or sentencing. In a nutshell, these gaps will heighten mistrust and disenfranchisement of minority neighborhoods and their predominant presence in the criminal justice system.
Similarly, De Soto, (2018) mentioned about the recording process is also another aspect that is also being reflected into the limelight, and researchers work on it. Sentencing guidelines, which remained intended to provide guidance in enforcement of penalties, have shown in the cases delivered being prospective contributing causes of variation in sentence deliveries depending on race, gender, and other factors. Fact that equal judgment is done in this system is not in support of liberty, security and Equality of all court users. Balance, fairness and equal standards of judgment is required for this system to allow for equal processing of persons sentenced for similar crimes.
Racial (or ethnic) Diversity in Criminal Justice have been the focus of much debate, and researchers across the board are trying to elucidate both the manifestations of discrimination and the ways to reduce it. Equivalently, researchers have also recorded instances of racial profiling, casting aside minorities, and the involvement of corrupt judges in addition to implicit biases among lawyers and others along the legal system. The prejudicial actions do not only kill the legal system’s credibility but it becomes a compulsion for people to adopt the system that is unreasonable and unequal. At the criminal justice field as well, the question of representation has become one of the central topics to discuss. Researchers frequently emphasize how necessary the representation is in order to ensure the fairness of the trials, and are careful to draw consequences of misjudgment. A particular emphasize is given to the potential improvements of the advisory boards – an illustration of which is the provision of public defense, and the first step provides justice. When the similar case is being conducted that individuals are not enough strong, the intensity of the feelings easily changes and the difficulty for the entire system inside the system might worsen. One result of the Studies carried out on how the criminal justice system has affected those who have been sentenced to life imprisonment, is that the extent it happens is limited by the effectiveness of such policies. Audit independence will be achieved when research is done to establish the role of the issues of the minimum sentences without choice, three strikes laws and stop and frisk tactics in aggravating the problems of disparities and injustices in the system. To asses which methods are more effective in the policies and what level of equity is proper for making the system fair is documented to by statistical data and the government. These parts of sources, therefore, recommend the integration of all the variables that are causes these opposing scenarios of contradicting the truth and justice implications in the United States management of criminal assets. Combating the situation of inequities and prejudices, as a rule, requires a massive reform based on complex research that makes use of the multitude of factors that can exert influence on the given criteria of justice
Conclusion
To sum up, the literature review has provided insight into a critical issue relevant to the current American criminal justice system: race and ethnic discrimination. The literature has covered several aspects related to this issue in detail, focusing on the topics of law enforcement practices, pretrial release, prosecution, incarceration, sentencing, and probation and bail of individuals. The work has also enabled us to address the existing knowledge gaps concerning the outcomes of the discrimination practices and the extent to which ways could be implemented to prevent these practices’ escalation. This issue appears to be particularly critical to be resolved due to the negative impact discrimination practices have on the people involved and the further misuse of the criminal justice system. Some ways to prevent discrimination in sentencing have been developed and implemented, and their results revealed certain successes. However, the measures are not sufficient to ensure the phenomenon’s complete eradication, as racism has been common within American society for a considerable period and has become an integral part of it. Thus, not only systematic changes in provisions but comprehensive measures should be implemented to address the issue, including educating judges, attorneys, and policymakers and promoting community-based programs focusing on alternatives to law. Overall, inequality must be eliminated, and with resultant efforts from government agencies, legal agents, and NGOs in a collaborative context, reforms will be affected.
References
Butorac, K., & Marinović, J. (2017). Geography of crime and geographic information systems. Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation, 2(4 s 002).
Chiricos, T. G., & Waldo, G. P. (1975). Socioeconomic status and criminal sentencing: An empirical assessment of a conflict proposition. American Sociological Review, 753-772.
Covington, S. S., & Bloom, B. E. (2003). Gendered justice: Women in the criminal justice system. Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders, 3-23.
Davis, M. (2022, June 17). Focusing on Racial Equity in The Justice System. Safety and Justice Challenge. https://safetyandjusticechallenge.org/blog/focusing-on-racial-equity-in-the-justice-system/
NCSL. (2022, May 24). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Criminal Justice System. Www.ncsl.org; National Conference of State Legislatures. https://www.ncsl.org/civil-and-criminal-justice/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-the-criminal-justice-system
The Institute for the Advancement of the American Legal System. (2022). Identifying barriers to equity in the justice system. https://iaals.du.edu/sites/default/files/documents/publications/paths_to_justice_barriers_equity_paper.pdf
Gebru, T. (2020). Race and gender. The Oxford Handbook of Ethics of AI, 251-269. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190067397.013.16
Gertner, J. N. (2022). Note to the new sentencing commission. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 35(1), 6-8. https://doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2022.35.1.6
Jackson, R. D., & Henderson, H. (2019). Criminal justice students’ perceptions and awareness of racism and discrimination. Race and Justice, 12(2), 252-275. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368719873024
Justice, B., & Meares, T. L. (2014). How the criminal justice system educates citizens. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 651(1), 159-177.
Jackson, S. M., Ratcliff, K., & Gruenewald, J. (2021). Gender and criminal justice responses to terrorism in the United States. Crime & Delinquency, 69(5), 1044-1070. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287211047535
Light, M. T. (2021). The declining significance of race in criminal sentencing: Evidence from US federal courts. Social Forces, 100(3), 1110-1141. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soab018
Sherman, L. W. (2002). Trust and confidence in criminal justice. National Institute of Justice Journal, 248, 22-31.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (2005). Explaining the great racial divide: Perceptions of fairness in the US criminal justice system. The journal of politics, 67(3), 762-783.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (2010). And justice for some: Race, crime, and punishment in the US criminal justice system. Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique, 43(2), 457-479.
Robinson, P. H., & Cahill, M. T. (2005). Law without justice: Why criminal law doesn’t give people what they deserve. Oxford University Press.
De Soto, W. (2018). Do police officers in the USA protect and serve all citizens equally? Social Sciences, 7(10), 190.
Butler, P. (2015). The system is working the way it should: the limits of criminal justice reform. Geo. LJ, 104, 1419.
Heuer, L. (2005). What’s Just about the Criminal Justice System-A Psychological Perspective. JL & Pol’y, 13, 209.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (2005). Explaining the great racial divide: Perceptions of fairness in the US criminal justice system. The journal of politics, 67(3), 762-783.
Ranti, D. V., & Nurmaily, E. (2021). Racial profiling in police stop and search practices is portrayed in George Tillman’s movie The Hate U Give. Linguistics and Literature Journal, 2(2), 93-97. https://doi.org/10.33365/llj.v2i2.1001
Rucker, J. M., & Richeson, J. A. (2021). Beliefs about the interpersonal vs. structural nature of racism and responses to racial inequality. The Routledge International Handbook of Discrimination, Prejudice and Stereotyping, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429274558-2
Tadros, E. (2023). Racism and incarcerated African American adolescents. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 74(2), 35-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfcj.12237
Unequal treatment under the flaw: Race, crime & retractions. (2023). Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04739-2
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